Building Vocabulary in the Content Areas

by Carol Damian

Content Vocabulary and Language

Vocabulary: vo-cab-u-lar-y:    

The words known to a person or used in a particular book or subject; words, symbols and their uses.
   —Oxford American Dictionary

All the words and informational symbols in a language used in a particular profession or subject area.
   —Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

Language: lan-gwij:       

Words and their uses; a system of signs and symbols used for conveying information; the vocabulary of a particular topic or subject.
   —Oxford American Dictionary

Words, sounds, visuals, symbols, or actions, used for communicating various specific types of information.
   —Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

One of the most important reasons for students to read, learn vocabulary, and expand their language in middle school and high school is for them to be able to read to understand information in the content areas—to become literate in the content. Often this is textbook reading, where there is an abundance of content-specific new vocabulary terms. In addition, the reader often encounters graphic and visual representations (graphs, charts, maps, photographs, drawings, etc.).  Information is also presented through symbolic representations (letters, numbers, mathematical symbols such as + and =, chemical formulas such as H₂O, etc.). And still other ways of representing ideas, processes, and principles might include scale drawings, chemical equations, numerical formulas, vector diagrams, number lines, and other similar forms of communicating.  Together, all these representations form the vocabulary, and therefore the language, of the topic or subject.

Each of the four major content areas (language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies) included in the Ohio Graduation Test has general, as well as specific, vocabulary, language, and print symbols or graphics to identify and describe important concepts, events, processes, and principles.
To be able to understand the OGT assessment items—and answer them correctly—students must be able to read reflectively, write the words (or appropriate symbols or illustrations), and put correct meaning in the message (their answers). That is, students need to be able to use the language—the “content vocabulary”—appropriate to the topic.

You can help all students acquire the necessary content-relevant vocabulary and language skills needed for the OGT by providing them with instruction in content and vocabulary literacy and specific strategies for skill application.  Using the chart below, let’s consider some skills needed for broad-based literacy for all content areas, specific content literacy, and effective content learning:

From the chart, we can begin to see a pattern of some basic skills needed as the foundation for virtually any classroom (and lifelong) literacy development and learning, as well as examples of specific types of skills for individual content areas. The chart is by no means all-inclusive.  All of you could likely add items for skills and learning that are either broad-based or specifically needed in your subject areas.  Redesigning or adding to the chart would be a worthwhile exercise for a group of content-area teachers or cross-curricular teacher groups. While doing so, you might consider these questions:

• What instruction is needed to best prepare my students for effective reading, writing, vocabulary development—and learning—in my content area?
• How will this help students be well prepared for the OGT?

Important Content Vocabulary from OGT Examples

Keeping a personal vocabulary notebook can be an effective way to help students understand, remember, review, and be able to use specific content vocabulary. In this notebook, students would enter new terms, symbols, and notes about visuals—including definitions and explanations in their own words. It is extremely helpful for many students to include their own drawings in their notebooks to help explain the meaning of terms and illustrative presentations found in their reading, discussions, videos, websites, and other resources.

For each of the content areas below (science, mathematics, and social studies), notice the highlighted terms and visuals, and consider possible strategies for helping your students to learn the meaning and use of important content-specific terms such as these. Many additional content-specific vocabulary terms, symbols, and visuals can be found in other released OGT items, as well as in your Ohio Academic Content Standards.

Science Vocabulary in Released OGT Questions 

• Most geologists accept radiometric dating techniques as valid because

1. radioactive elements decay at a constant and measurable rate.
2. all radioactive elements used for dating purposes have the same decay rate.
3. elements used for radiometric dating have both radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes.

Item 13, March 2008 Science OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• Energy produced by cellular processes is stored as

1. CO₂.
2. ATP.
3. DNA.
4. RNA.

Item 5, March 2008 Science OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• A student takes a herbicide-resistant weed from plot 3 and a herbicide-resistant weed from plot 4. He determines that both plants have dominant mutations in the gene that is responsible for herbicide resistance (H). The genotype of each plant is indicated below.

     In a cross between these two weeds, what percentage of the offspring would be resistant to the herbicide?

1.   0%
2.  25%
3.  50%
4. 100%

Item 9, March 2008 Science OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• In the diagram below, similar types of waves with the same amplitude travel in the same medium.

Compared to wave X, which statement is correct?

1. Wave Y has greater speed.  
2. Wave Y has less energy 
3. Wave Y has a lower frequency.
4. Wave Y has a shorter wavelength.

Item 14, March 2008 Science OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• Which element does the shell model represent?

A.                                                 B.   

C.                                                    D. 

   Item 31, March 2008 Science OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• Environmental monitoring of a lake located to the southeast of a factory has shown a consistent decrease in pH over the period of a year. A researcher investigating the pH change hypothesizes that either a factory or a farm along the river is responsible for the pH change. The river flows into the lake.
  
  

The researcher collects a water sample from locations Y and Z in the diagram and runs pH analyses on each sample. He finds that the pH in sample Z is lower than the pH in sample Y and concludes that the factory is responsible for the low pH values in the lake.

Based on the diagram and the researcher’s investigation, provide two reasons why this may not be a valid conclusion. Describe how each reason could invalidate the conclusion.
Item 35, March 2008 Science OGT, Ohio Department of Education

Mathematics Vocabulary in Released OGT Questions 

• Weekly salaries of the employees at a local video store are shown in the table below.
  
  
  
  What is the mean weekly salary at this video store?

1. $230.4
2. $242.00
3. $322.6 
4. $350.00

Item 15, March 2008 Mathematics OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• The graph shows the percent of the total votes cast for each of the four candidates in Andersonville’s city council election.

If 2,542 people voted in this election, about how many votes did Lango receive?

1.  76
2. 141  
3. 458
4. 915

Item 18, March 2008 Mathematics OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• Joel plays tic-tac-toe on his computer. The computer plays first and randomly places an “X” in one of the grid squares as labeled in the diagram.

The frequency table shows the computer’s first move for 50 games.

Based on these results, what is the experimental probability that the computer will place an “X” in a corner square on the first move of its next game?

1.   
2.   
3.   
4.   

Item 35, March 2008 Mathematics OGT, Ohio Department of Education

Social Studies Vocabulary in Released OGT Questions 

• Some countries that are dictatorships hold elections from time to time. These elections are different from elections in presidential democracies because typically elections in dictatorships

1. only allow citizens to vote and to run for elected office. 
2. are monitored by international observers to ensure fairness.
3. only have candidates from one political party on the ballot. 
4. are held more often than elections in presidential democracies.

Item 31, March 2008 Social Studies OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• In order to stimulate the economy, the United States government lowers personal income tax rates. Why would this action be expected to promote economic growth?

1. Businesses would be required to hire more employees. 
2. Manufacturers would have to pay more for raw materials. 
3. The government would be less likely to engage in deficit spending. 
4. Consumers would have more money available to spend on goods and services. 

Item 41, March 2008 Social Studies OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• Use the following maps to answer question 28.

Following World War I, Great Britain was given a mandate (order) by the League of Nations to govern Palestine. Jewish immigration to Palestine greatly increased during the 1930s and 1940s. Violence erupted between Palestinian Arabs and Jewish people. Unable to resolve the conflict, Britain turned the problem over to the United Nations. The maps on the previous page show changes to this region as a result of the U.N. Partition Plan of 1947.
According to the maps, how did the U.N. Partition Plan propose to prevent further violence between Palestinian Arabs and Jewish people?

1. The physical features of the region were used to separate the Jewish people from the Palestinian Arabs.
2. An economic union was created that made the Jewish people and the Palestinian Arabs dependent on each other.
3. Two political regions were created in order to divide the control of Palestine between the Jewish people and the Palestinian Arabs.
4. Palestine was placed under the jurisdiction of the United Nations, and its boundaries were redrawn to include Jewish people and Palestinian Arabs.

Item 28, March 2005 Social Studies OGT, Ohio Department of Education

• Use the following picture to answer question 35: 

Source: Library of Congress

Actions such as those shown in the picture above helped bring about

1. the decision in Plessy v. Ferguson.
2. the decision in Brown v. Board of Education.
3. the 19th Amendment.
4. the 26th Amendment.

Item 35, March 2005 Social Studies OGT, Ohio Department of Education

Commonly Used Testing Verbs

Along with the content-specific vocabulary and language noted in the OGT sample items, we can glean general “testing verbs” from released OGTs and from our Ohio Academic Content Standards. It would be beneficial for students to recognize the expectation expressed in each verb. For example, if the test item says to “describe . . . ,” the student is expected to tell what is observable, what something or a situation looks like, such as measurements, colors, shapes, actions, etc. If the item asks students to “explain . . . ,” they would be expected to tell why or how something happens or why it looks like it does. Following is an Ohio standards-based sample list of testing verbs with which students should be familiar and which students have likely encountered in assessments prior to taking the OGT:

Various Instructional Strategies for Building Vocabulary Through Reading in the Content Areas

These strategies have proved helpful and can be easily adapted to suit your content and your students’ needs.

Introducing a Topic

Read a short topic-related piece (one or two paragraphs) from an outside source (e.g., website, newspaper, magazine, cartoon). Discuss, as a class and/or in small groups, the important vocabulary or “language” in the piece, as well as the meaning and possible connections to students’ previous learning.

Prereading Required Text Material

When giving a reading assignment to students, provide them with key questions to help them focus on the important content as they read the new material.

     Example

What is the major idea in the reading? What prior knowledge do you think this connects to? Compare this with______that we learned about recently. What vocabulary, symbols, and/or illustrations are not quite clear to you?  Identify three important points in the reading.

Using an Anticipation Guide

An anticipation guide provides students with some specific statements to consider as they read and try to understand content material. A guide such as this helps individual readers dig into the meaning and be thoughtful and reflective as they read. 

     Example

Below are some statements about algebra from your course textbook. Read each statement, and put a check mark next to the ones you believe to be true and an X next to the ones with which you disagree. When we discuss the reading and these statements, be ready to explain why you chose to mark each one as you did. 

____The cumulative property of multiplication can be shown by

z = (b)(t)(y) or z = (t)(y)(b). 

____An algebraic equation can be used for computing annual interest on a $5000 car loan at a rate of 6%.

____Algebra is an important educational component for careers in pharmacy, logistics, and oceanography.

____Necessary skills for learning algebra include knowing your addition and multiplication facts, being able to read and write effectively, and remembering the order of operations when solving equations.

Previewing, Pronouncing, and Using Important Vocabulary Before Reading the Assignment

We all understand and learn new information best when we understand the language being used. If some of the vocabulary in our reading resources is unfamiliar to us, we need some instruction and time to absorb the meaning of these before we can understand the topic. We can help our students with this important step in learning by previewing new vocabulary terms, as well as pronouncing and using these terms in brief context-relevant discussions prior to students’ reading newly assigned text. 

     Example

Paragraph from a chemistry reading assignment:

When you light a burner on your stove, methane gas bursts into flame and produces the thermal energy necessary to heat your food. The burning of methane is a chemical reaction. Burning something typically requires oxygen, so methane and oxygen are the reactants. The products are carbon dioxide and water.
The word expression for this reaction is this:     

Methane + oxygen produces carbon dioxide + water

The chemical equation for the same reaction is this:

CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ +2H₂O

In previewing the reading assignment, identify, pronounce, and discuss with the class methane gas, thermal energy, chemical reaction, reactants, products, word expression, chemical equation, CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O.  

Read-Alouds/Think-Alouds

A teacher or student leader does a read-aloud/think-aloud with the class by selecting several key paragraphs from the required reading and then thinking out loud as he or she reads the passage aloud, having the students follow along in their books (or handouts, or website). This helps all students think of questions, background knowledge, new vocabulary, and new ideas—and think either out loud or silently as they read on their own.

     Example

Using the chemistry example paragraph above for a read-aloud, the teacher or student leader might read and think out loud something like this:

When you light a burner on your stove (“Hmmm, this can’t be an electric stove!”), 

methane gas bursts into flame and produces the thermal energy (“What’s the difference between thermal energy and heat?”) necessary to heat your food.

The burning of methane is a chemical reaction (“chemical reaction . . . so I wonder what methane becomes?”).

Burning something typically requires oxygen, so methane and oxygen are the reactants. The products are water and carbon dioxide. (“Can I SEE the water and carbon dioxide?”)

The word expression for this reaction is this: methane + oxygen produces carbon dioxide + water
The chemical equation for the same reaction is this: Ch₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O (“I see chemical formulas AND numbers in this equation!”)

Visual Representation Analysis

Visual representations can be presented in many ways. A few examples include the Lewis dot or Bohr representation of atomic structure; whisker, line, bar, or pie graphs; force or velocity vector diagrams; topographic, weather, political, or road maps; design and scale drawings for devices or objects such as buildings, bridges, cell structure, tectonic plate movement, or electrical circuits; and photographs of many different events, people, structures, natural land formations, clothing styles, etc. 

What are the observable details of the visual, and what might you learn from these?
What does the visual remind you of, or what could it be compared with?
What are the meanings of the labels on the visual (such as titles, headings, explanatory terms, etc.)?  How do these labels help?
What is the source of the visual?

Summarizing Guide

Assign students a section from their textbook or other essential reading material on the concept being studied. Explain that they will be writing a summary of the passage as well as noting important vocabulary terms, symbols, and visual items that are in the reading assignment. Provide students with a summary guide to help them organize their thoughts.

     Example

Summary Guide: Write five short sentences (no more than ten words each) that together provide a meaningful summary of the assigned reading section.
1.______________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________
4.______________________________________________________________
5.______________________________________________________________
Vocabulary:  List the words, symbols (e.g., formulas, vectors, equal =, greater than >), or titles of visuals (e.g., graphs, maps, drawings) that are especially important in this reading and/or are unfamiliar to you:
__________________________;  ___________________;
__________________________;  ____________________;  _______________________

Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers can be particularly valuable to students by helping them process and synthesize their thinking and learning. These organizers can be designed to be used before, during, or after a student is engaged in the actual reading.  Below is an example of a graphic organizer to be used during or after reading that is especially helpful in building vocabulary (broadly defined to include graphics, content-specific symbols, etc.) and supporting conceptual learning.

     Example

Read the following paragraph, and then use the graphic organizer below to organize the information you just read:

Ionic compounds are made up of atoms held together electrostatically. That is, the atoms form ions easily, giving them either a negative or positive electric charge.  Opposite charges attract, so a negative ion would be attracted to and held together with a positive ion. Many types of salts are ionic substances and are usually solids at room temperature. Table salt, NaCl, is a familiar ionic substance. However, most molecular compounds have very different properties. Hydrogen chloride (HCl), for example, is a gas at room temperature. Water (H₂O) is a liquid at room temperature.  These two molecular compounds are so different from salts (ionic substances) that you might correctly suspect that electrostatic attraction between ions fails to explain their bonding. These compounds (HCl and H₂O) are not ionic. Combining atoms in HCl, for example, do not give up electrons.  Instead, H and Cl atoms share electrons, and this sharing holds them together to form a molecule. This is called covalent molecular bonding. For water, the two H atoms share electrons with the oxygen atom, holding them together to form the covalently bonded water molecule, H₂O.

Sample organizer filled in by student:

ORC Resources

These resources from the ORC collection are especially useful in building vocabulary in the content areas.*

Choosing, Chatting, and Collecting: Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy
In the vocabulary self-collection strategy, students choose the words they want to learn, offer a rationale for their selection, and agree upon words to include in a classroom collection. This strategy helps students to understand the meanings of new words, integrate new words in their conversations and writing, and make personal connections with words while reading. In this lesson, an online Shakespeare text is used as an example. The self-collection strategy is versatile and may be applied to any content-area reading. This lesson can easily be modified and used with other content-area topics as well. Although self-selection of vocabulary enhances students' motivation and achievement in learning new words, overuse of the strategy will diminish active engagement.

ABC Bookmaking Builds Vocabulary in the Content Areas
This lesson engages and motivates students in building content-area vocabulary through the creation of ABC books. Students select vocabulary words and terms related to a current unit of study in mathematics, science, social studies, or other subjects. They research the meanings of the words and create a reference page for each word within their books. Additionally, illustrations and examples accompany each word to demonstrate full understanding of its meaning. At the end of the lesson, students share their ABC books by presenting them to the class. The collection of books becomes a reference resource for classroom inquiry. This lesson may be adapted to incorporate the study of word origins, roots, and affixes. Detailed plans for implementing this lesson, along with student activity sheets and guidelines, are available at the website.

SAT Vocabulary for Dummies: Using New Words in Context
This content resource is a quick one-page resource on vocabulary intended for teachers to use when focusing on SAT vocabulary comprehension. The page includes a funny story for students to laugh along with, a brief review of the vocabulary highlighted in the story, the dictionary definitions for the terms, and a quick exercise (with answers) to check students' vocabulary comprehension. Links include additional quick and fun resources for SAT vocabulary study.

The Lex Files
The Lex Files provide access to Latin-Greek prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Lists of quotations, legal terms, medical words, prescription terms, religious expressions, and various abbreviations from Latin and Greek classical and modern translations are also available at the website. These reference materials support vocabulary learning and may be used for instructional planning or student-led projects.

Word Central
Maintained by Merriam-Webster, this student-centered website offers free access to an online dictionary, word games, and interactive word puzzles. Features on the site include a free subscription to the "Daily Buzzword" and "Build-Your-Own-Dictionary."

References and Bibliography

Amrein, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2003). The effects of high-stakes testing on student motivation and learning, Educational Leadership, 60(5), 32–38.

International Reading Association. (2002). Evidence-based reading instruction: Putting the National Reading Panel Report into practice. Newark, DE: Author.

Lenski, S., Wham, M. A., & Johns, J. (1999). Reading and learning strategies for middle and high school students. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), www.socialstudies.org/resources.

Nichols, N. (2006). Elements of basic algebra. Tyler, TX: Firelight Books.

Ohio Department of Education. (2002). English language arts academic content standards.

Ohio Department of Education. (2002). Mathematics academic content standards.

Ohio Department of Education. (2003). Science academic content standards.

Ohio Department of Education. (2003). Social studies academic content standards.

Ohio Department of Education, SUCCESS website.

Ohio Resource Center for Mathematics, Science, and Reading, www.ohiorc.org.

Oxford American dictionary. (1980). New York: Oxford Press.

Sullo, Bob. (2007). Activating the desire to learn. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Webster’s new universal unabridged dictionary. (1983). New York: Simon & Schuster.

Wilbraham, A. C., Staley, D. D., Matta, M. S., & Waterman, E. L. (2008). Prentice Hall chemistry. Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall.

*Note: The links for each resource take you to the ORC page that displays a brief commentary describing the resource and lists Ohio and national academic content standards. You can click the URL at the top of the commentary to go directly to the resource. To find out more about ORC's records, go to Frequently Asked Questions.

Recently retired, Dr. Carol Damian has over 30 years experience as a physics and chemistry teacher and in K–12 science materials research, curriculum and assessment development, and teacher professional development. Carol serves as the Ohio Mathematics and Science Coalition Executive Board Chair and is actively involved in the Ohio ASCD Board and the ORC Science Content Board, as well as Ohio's STEM initiatives. She has also served on the Advisory and Writing Committees for the Ohio Science Academic Content Standards, Content Committees for Ohio Science Graduation Test, and fifth grade Ohio Science Achievement Test and is a past president of the Science Education Council of Ohio.

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